The School Linking project draws on psychological research and theory to provide opportunities for meaningful, positive social contact between children from different backgrounds.
Merely bringing children together is not enough…
Psychological research has shown that merely bringing together children from different backgrounds in a room or school is not enough to generate meaningful interactions across group lines. We know this from looking around any ethnically, racially or culturally diverse secondary school: self-segregation, where young people are drawn to friendships with children from the same background as them, is the preferred mode. Given the chance, many young people will forgo opportunities to form friendships with young people from a different backgrounds and ‘stick to their own’. This propensity to make friends with ‘people like me’ strengthens through adolescence. But we know that having diverse friendship groups has so many benefits: it is associated with positive attitudes towards diversity, increased prosocial behaviours across group lines, and better understanding and acceptance of difference.
What does research tell us?
Over 60 years of intensive research has identified specific conditions required to ensure that contact between individuals from different backgrounds has a big impact.
Key research findings and theories are as follows:
1. Optimal conditions for contact
Allport (1954) identified key conditions that are essential for optimal intergroup contact:
- equal status of the groups involved
- support from authority figures
- contact situations involving activities that promote co-operation and a common goal
- opportunities for individuals to form friendships.
2. Preparation for contact
More recently researchers have been considering how to best to prepare individuals for these encounters so as to maximise their impact on attitudes and behaviours and the potential for developing sustained, high quality relationships. Interacting with someone from a different background can induce anxiety and lead to avoidance behaviours (lack of interaction, infrequent eye contact, etc). This is particularly the case for individuals (including children) with little experience of diversity. Turner and Cameron (2016) emphasise the importance of ‘confidence in contact‘, a state of having the necessary confidence, skills, beliefs and experience for successful intergroup contact. Key aspects are: low anxiety about the interaction, positive expectations (i.e. they want to play with me), perceived intergroup similarity, and high self-efficacy for intergroup interactions. It can be developed through learning about the other group in a safe space, increased knowledge of the other group, and increased perception of similarity.
3. Common ingroup
Gaertner and colleagues argue that when two (or more) groups come together, resulting attitudes and behaviours towards the other group are likely to be more positive when the individuals perceive themselves as belonging to one common group.
4. Perceived similarity
Perceived difference is thought to be a main driver of prejudice in children, and push young people to favour members of their own group in terms of sharing resources, attitudes, and friendships choices. Contact is most impactful when differences are examined and respected, and similarities are explored and emphasised.
The Linking Project delivers good practice on incorporating the above research findings in their programme structure, content and evaluation.
Teacher training
For School Linking to be effective pupils need to be supported by teachers who are confident in the linking process, knowledgeable about the project, prepared to handle any sensitive topics, and able to provide role models for positive social contact. The Linking Network training ensures teachers embody these characteristics through extensive and varied training, and a chance for teachers to meet ahead of the School Linking days. We know that contact is more likely to be successful if there is support from authority figures. Psychological research has shown that pupils are sensitive to their teachers’ biases and racial attitudes, even in their nonverbal behaviour. Linking Network have included teacher training to ensure that the teachers’ (i.e. authority figures’) support for the Linking Project is obvious to the children involved.
Programme structure
A real strength of the Linking Project is its preparation phase, where the students begin to get to know one another through exchanging letters, emails, videos and resources. This low risk form of initial contact enhances their ‘confidence in contact’, meaning that they feel prepared and confident that they can engage in an interaction with someone from the other school successfully. They will expect the other school to want to interact with them and there will be reduced anxiety. The careful choice of activities prior to the linking allows students to ask questions, challenges misconceptions (e.g. curiosity questions and answers) and emphasises similarities. The activities that the Schools Linking network have introduced prior to the first meeting are essential for ensuring positive, meaningful contact at the first meeting and beyond.
Equal status
In order for meaningful and positive interactions to occur, both groups should have equal status. School Linking embeds this principle in their practice in a number of ways. Firstly, both groups practise games and tasks ahead of time to ensure equality in knowledge and expertise. Secondly, the linking occurs at a neutral venue so both groups are guests. Thirdly, teachers meet ahead of time to share information and plan activities so teachers in both groups also have equal status.
Structured and supported interactions
School Linking provides support for teachers in running these events via facilitators, who prepare the activities and help run the day. This ensures that when schools come together teachers can focus on supporting their pupils and facilitating positive and meaningful interactions.
Programme content
The interaction between the pupils is just one element of this project. It is supported by a number of extension activities that encourage positive attitudes towards diversity (through reading books and poetry about diversity) and allow children to reflect on their experiences and explore perceived differences and similarities. There are also self-reflection tasks, which are important for developing confidence in contact, so that young people can transfer the skills they have developed in this setting to future diverse situations.
Co-operation and common goals
Co-operation and common goals are essential for building positive and meaningful relationships across group lines. This principle is embedded in the content of the Schools Linking programme through the activities and games the children engage in.
Evaluation
School Linking has strategically embedded evaluation at key points in the linking process. The perspectives of teachers and facilitators are gathered and these capture the impact of the linking on teachers and pupils. The evaluation taps into the key aspects of confidence in contact and the characteristics of positive and meaningful contact as outlined above.