The hypotheses were tested through correlational and experimental studies and were updated. In particular, we found support for three of the original hypotheses (H1, H2, H5). In contrast, we found support against H3 and 4: heroised groups are more likely to be perceived as suffering, and more likely to be supported in their demands.

In order to explain these unexpected findings, we updated our hypotheses. In contrast to our hypotheses, heroised groups are more supported in their demands (H3) – this runs against findings that heroic groups are exploited (Stanley & Kay, 2024, study 5). We therefore hypothesise that, despite the perception that heroic groups would willingly accept exploitative policies (H6), participants are less likely to support exploitative policies for heroised workers (H7).

In addition, our findings that heroised groups are perceived as suffering more (H4) further led us to hypothesise that heroised workers are perceived as more willing to suffer (H8). In this view, victims and heroes are similar in the extent to which they would be perceived as suffering — but heroic groups differ from victims in the extent to which this suffering is perceived as chosen.

In another line of research, we evaluated how perceived heroism could also influence moral condemnation of the use of force of workers during a specific mission. We focused on a recent event wherein Brazilian military police officers were accused of an excessive use of force during a deadly police raid in a favela in Rio de Janeiro (see https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c62012e6g9lo for a coverage of this event). 

We surveyed 300 participants (representative UK residents) and asked them to evaluate the heroism and their support for de-regulating the occupations and protecting them from consequences upon breaking the rules. We found that heroism predicted support for deregulating occupations above and beyond attitude, across all six target occupations (journalists, underwater welders, psychiatrists, nurses, firefighters, and soldiers). Looking at occupations individually, we observed especially large effect sizes for soldiers and journalists (two occupations that can be described as villains by some participants). In contrast, nurses did not appear to derive a similar moral shield from their heroic status.

Key elements

• Ethics: # 2025175682910010087 (Approved September, 02, 2025)

• Sample: 300 UK residents (representative sample) 
• Manipulation: Target Occupation
• Design: Between-participants

• Target occupations: Journalists; Underwater welders; Psychiatrists; Nurses; Firefighters; and Soldiers
• Results: Across all occupations, perceived heroism was related to a support for workers’ impunity (i.e., de-regulating occupations and protecting the workers from consequences following breaking the rules).

Links

Full report
Data, Codes, Material
Pre-registration

In a large correlational study (N = 840), we assessed the correlates of perceived heroism across 6 occupations (firefighters, soldiers, nurses, psychiatrists, underwater welders, and journalists). We found strong correlational support for the following original hypotheses:

• Heroised groups are the recipient of gratefulness
• Heroised groups are shielded from criticism and hate speech
• Heroised groups are shielded from consequences of rule-breaking through increased support for de-regulating heroised occupations, and support for protecting rule-breakers from legal prosecutions

In contrast to our initial hypotheses, we found strong correlational support that:

• Heroised groups are perceived as suffering more
• Heroised groups are more likely to be supported in their demands for improving their work conditions

Following this correlational studies, we updated our hypotheses (see Table 2).

The study was registered. Full details on our analyses can be found online.

Key elements

• Ethics: # 2025175820653410122 (Approved September, 18, 2025)

• Sample: 840 UK residents (representative sample)
• Manipulation: Target Occupation
• Design: Between-participants

• Target occupations: Firefighters, Soldiers, Nurses, Psychiatrists, Underwater welders, and Journalists
• Results: Perceived occupational heroism was associated with increased gratitude, decreased criticism acceptability, and increased support for workers’ impunity. However, in contrast to our initial hypotheses, perceived occupational heroism was associated with increased support for workers’ demands, and increased perceived victimisation of the workers.

Links

Full report
Data, Codes, Material
Pre-registration

Using the manipulations of heroism validated as part of the project (see Causes), we evaluated the causal effects of framing occupations as exposed to risk and helpful (two manipulations that were proved to significantly influence the perception of heroism across several occupations) on our updated hypotheses. We evaluated our hypotheses using two neutral occupations that were shown to be perceived as more heroic when describing them as exposed to risk or helpful (Underwater welders and psychiatrists).

Our findings regarding each of our hypotheses are summarised below:

H1. Gratitude
Participants expressed greater gratitude toward occupations framed as exposed to risk or helpful.

H2. Shielding from criticism
Participants were more likely to shield occupations framed as exposed to risk or helpful from criticism, although this effect emerged only for the general-level measure.

H3. Support for workers’ demands
Participants were more likely to support demands from occupations framed as exposed to risk, but not those framed as helpful, and this effect emerged only for the specific-level measure.

H4. Perceived suffering
Participants were more likely to perceive workers from occupations framed as exposed to risk as suffering (but not those framed as helpful).

H5. Protection of rule-breaking workers
Participants were more likely to support protecting rule-breaking workers from occupations framed as exposed to risk, but not those framed as helpful, and this effect emerged only for the general-level measure.

H6. Perceived acceptance of exploitative policies
Participants were more likely to perceive workers from occupations framed as exposed to risk or helpful as willing to accept exploitative policies.

H7. Support for exploitative policies
Participants were less likely to support exploitative policies for workers from occupations framed as exposed to risk, but not those framed as helpful.

H8. Perceived willingness to endure pain
Participants were more likely to perceive workers from occupations framed as exposed to risk as willing to endure greater pain, but not those framed as helpful, and this effect emerged only for the general-level measure.

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Key elements

• Ethics: # 2026177151095310280 (Approved February, 19, 2026)

• Sample: 840 UK residents (representative sample)
• Manipulation: Target Occupation, Risk (vs Boredom), Helfulness (vs No helpfulness)
• Design: Between-participants

• Target occupations: Psychiatrists, and Underwater welders
• Results: Overall, framing occupations as exposed to risk produced broader and more consistent effects than framing them as helpful, increasing gratitude, protection from criticism, support for workers’ demands, perceived suffering, protection of rule-breaking workers, perceived willingness to accept exploitation, and willingness to endure pain, while reducing support for exploitative policies. Helpfulness framing mainly increased gratitude and perceived willingness to accept exploitative policies, with little evidence for the other outcomes. Most effects were small and often depended on whether outcomes were measured at the general or specific level; although many were explained by more favourable attitudes toward the occupation, several risk effects remained after accounting for attitude.

Links

Full report
Data, Codes, Material
Pre-registration

In this study, we decided to extend our findings to a new population. We investigated the perception of military police officers in Brazil, focusing on a specific episode of use of force (i.e., a deadly raid in Rio de Janeiro which resulted in more than a hundred death). The aim of the study was also to test a direct manipulation of heroism (following the approach, Stanley & Kay, 2024).

We recruited 581 Brazilian respondents. Participants were randomly assigned to either a description of the recent use of force of the officers where the word ‘Heroic’ was attached to each mention of the police officers or a description omitting the word ‘Heroic’ (e.g., ‘the heroic military police officers’ vs ‘the military police officers’). In addition, in the heroic condition, a comic-style depiction of an officer with a super-hero cape was attached to the vignette; whereas in the control condition, there was the same comic-style image but without the cape.

After reading the description, participants completed a Portuguese version of our heroism scale – as used in the previous study (see Causal effects of Heroism on our predicted outcomes). In addition to our measures, we added four items measuring the moral condemnation of this use of force.

Although we did not find evidence supporting that our manipulation influenced perceived occupational heroism, as well as any other heroism-related outcomes in the scale – we found a significant effect of the heroic framing on moral condemnation of the use of force. This could suggest that our framing, despite not changing the perception of the workers – might have influenced the perception of the specific episode covered in the manipulation.

In addition, correlational analyses replicated observations in UK samples, emphasising the generalisability of our correlations between perceived occupational heroism and the outcomes of our heroism scale.

Links

TBC