Our research project emit five hypotheses that will be tested through both correlational and experimental studies:
Hard to be a Hero
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| Hypotheses | |
|---|---|
| H1 | Heroised groups are recipients of symbolic and material gratitude |
| H2 | Heroised groups are shielded from criticism |
| H3 | Heroised groups are less likely to receive support if they are the instigators of the demands |
| H4 | Heroised groups are less likely to be perceived as victims when suffering |
| H5 | Heroised groups are less likely to be perceived as villains when breaking regulations |
Collective Heroism Perception scale development
We developed a questionnaire designed to measure all key variables outlined in our hypotheses.
Data and material associated with the full process of scale development is available online on OSF.
The development of the scale followed four phases described below.
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Phase 1: Initial items pool development
An initial pool of 82 items was generated in February 2025.
Phase 2: Construct validity assessment
A group of 5 experts in moral psychology and heroism study was consulted to provide feedback on the relevance of our items in measuring the target outcomes. Their feedback resulted in a 66-item questionnaire. This phase was completed in March 2025.
Phase 3: Face validity assessment
A group of 20 naive UK residents evaluated the clarity of each item of the 66-items version of the scale. Their feedback led to a 54-item questionnaire. See Detailed Report on the Face validity assessment. This protocol was completed in April 2025.
Ethics: ID 202517441056499963 (Approved Apr 8, 2025)
Phase 4: Reliability and Structure assessment
We asked 440 participants (representative UK sample) to complete the 54-item questionnaire. We then assessed the reliability (i.e., MacDonald’s omega) and the structure of the survey using Exploratory Factor Analyses. This Questionnaire assessment was registered. Our analyses led to a 21-item final scale that will be used for our research project. See Detailed Report on the Reliability and Structure assessment. This study was completed in May 2025.
Ethics: ID 202517473026909997 (Approved May, 15, 2025)
Heroism and Acceptability of Rule Breaking
We surveyed 300 participants (representative UK residents) and asked them to evaluate the heroism and their support for de-regulating the occupations and protecting them from consequences upon breaking the rules. We found that heroism predicted support for deregulating occupations above and beyond attitude, across all six target occupations (journalists, underwater welders, psychiatrists, nurses, firefighters, and soldiers). Looking at occupations individually, we observed especially large effect sizes for soldiers and journalists (two occupations that can be described as villains by some participants). In contrast, nurses did not appear to derive a similar moral shield from their heroic status.
The study was registered. Full details on our analyses can be found online.
Ethics: 2025175682910010087 (Approved September, 02, 2025)
The Poppy effect: how remembrance day celebrations influence the moral shielding of heroes?
We assessed the effect of remembrance day celebrations by replicating the previous study (see above) during the week of remembrance day (i.e., 4th November – 11th November). We assessed perceptions of soldiers, and two control occupations (nurses and underwater welders), to compare the replication with the previous original sample. We expected soldiers (but not the other occupations) to be more heroised during remembrance day celebrations. We also expected them to be more shielded from criticism, and to be more protected from consequences associated with rule-breaking. We successfully replicated the previous findings: heroism was associated with a moral shield.
However, we did not find any of the expected consequences of remembrance day celebrations: soldiers were not more heroised in this new sample, compared to the previous one. Moreover, hate speech and criticism toward soldiers appeared to be more acceptable during remembrance day celebrations. Participants completing our scale during the remembrance day celebrations also appeared to be less in favour of de-regulating the occupation. If anything, our results indicate that commemorations of veterans associated with remembrance day might weaken the moral shield associated with heroism. Further studies should be conducted to understand the mechanisms underlying this unexpected poppy effect.
The study was registered. Full details on our analyses can be found online.
Ethics: 2025176216679410143 (Approved November, 03, 2025)